So "Brianna Wu" (famous for gamergate) is trending, and because I love punishment, I clicked on it to see why. Apparently she tweeted that Elon Musk's plan to go to the moon is bad, because once there he can drop rocks on the Earth with the power of 100s of nuclear bombs. People are mocking her for the stupidity of this.
But the math checks out.
First of all, she probably got the idea from Heinlein's book The Moon is a Harsh Mistress where the rebel moon colonists do just that. I doubt she did her own math, and relied upon Heinlein to do it for her. But let's do the math ourselves.
Let's say that we want to stand at the height of the moon and drop a rock. How big a rock do we need to equal the energy of an atomic bomb? To make things simple, let's assume the size of bombs we want is that of the one dropped on Hiroshima.
As we know from high school physics, the energy of a dropped object (ignoring air) is:
energy = 0.5 * mass * velocity * velocity
Solving for mass (the size of the rock), the equation is:
mass = 2 * energy/(velocity * velocity)
We choose "energy" as that of an atomic bomb, but what is "velocity" in this equation, the speed of something dropped from the height of the moon?
The answer is something close to the escape velocity, which is defined as the speed of something dropped infinitely far away from the Earth. The moon isn't infinitely far away (only 250,000 miles away), but it's close.
How close? Well, let's use the formula for escape velocity from Wikipedia [*]:
where G is the "gravitational constant", M is the "mass of Earth", and r is the radius. Plugging in "radius of earth" and we get an escape velocity from the surface of the Earth of 11.18 km/s, which matches what Google tells us. Plugging in the radius of the moon's orbit, we get 1.44 km/s [*]. Thus, we get the following as the speed of an object dropped from the height of the moon to the surface of the earth, barring air resistance [*]:
9.74 km/s
Plugging these numbers in gets the following result:
So the answer for the mass of the rock, dropped from the moon, to equal a Hiroshima blast, is 1.3 billion grams, or 1.3 million kilograms, or 1.3 thousand metric tons.
Well, that's a fine number and all, but what does that equal? Is that the size of Rhode Island? or just a big truck?
The answer is: nearly the same mass as the Space Shuttle during launch (2.03 million kilograms [*]). Or, a rock about 24 feet on a side.
That's big rock, but not so big that it's impractical, especially since things weigh 1/6th as on Earth. In Heinlein's books, instead of shooting rocks via rockets, it shot them into space using a railgun, magnetic rings. Since the moon doesn't have an atmosphere, you don't need to shoot things straight up. Instead, you can accelerate them horizontally across the moon's surface, to an escape velocity of 5,000 mph (escape velocity from moon's surface). As the moon's surface curves away, they'll head out into space (or toward Earth)
Thus, Elon Musk would need to:
go the moon
setup a colony, underground
mine iron ore
build a magnetic launch gun
build fields full of solar panels for energy
mine some rock
cover it in iron (for magnet gun to hold onto)
bomb earth
At that point, he could drop hundreds of "nukes" on top of us. I, for one, would welcome our Lunar overlords. Free Luna!
Update: I've made a number of short cuts, but I don't think they'll affect the math much.
We don't need escape velocity for the moon as a whole, just enough to reach the point where Earth's gravity takes over. On the other hand, we need to kill the speed of the Moons's orbit (2,000 miles per hour) in order to get down to Earth, or we just end up orbiting the Earth. I just assume the two roughly cancel each other out and ignore it.
I also ignore the atmosphere. Meteors from outer space hitting the earth of this size tend to disintegrate or blow up before reaching the surface. The Chelyabinsk meteor, the one in all those dashcam videos from 2013, was roughly 5 times the size of our moon rocks, and blew up in the atmosphere, high above the surface, with about 5 times the energy of a Hiroshima bomb. Presumably, we want our moon rocks to reach the surface, so they'll need some protection. Probably make them longer and thinner, and put an ablative heat shield up from, and wrap them in something strong like iron.
I don't know how much this will slow down the rock. Presumably, if coming straight down, it won't slow down by much, but if coming in at a steep angle (as meteors do), then it could slow down quite a lot.
Update: First version of this post used "height of moon", which Wolfram Alfa interpreted as "diameter of moon". This error was found by @hiergiltdiestfu. The current version of this post changes this to the correct value "radius of moon's orbit".
Update: I made a stupid error about Earth's gravitational strength at the height of the Moon's orbit. I've changed the equations to fix this.
By Robert Graham
5 comments:
newt0311 said...
I'd call this bullshit but I'm not used to bullshit being this obviously bullshit-ty...
For starters, the radius of the earth is ~4k miles. The distance from the Earth to the moon is ~240k miles. I'm not sure where you got the idea that the Earth's gravity on the moon was the same as Earth's gravity on Earth's surface but it is complete nonsense by a factor of ~3600x.
I don't have any stake in Brianna's statements or your statements or Elon Musk's supposed plans for world domination and normally I wouldn't normally comment on such things but your post blows through a rather startling number of basic common-sense checks.
1. If the Earth's gravity was roughly the same on the moon as it is on the earth's surface then Neil Armstrong wouldn't have been able to walk on the moon! After all, the pull towards Earth would have been six times as strong as the pull toward's the moon's surface.
2. Can we get a space-shuttle sized object to the moon? Probably though it might be expensive. Can we get an object 1/100 the size of the space-shuttle to the moon? Almost certainly yes though again it might be expensive. Do we have any rockets in space that can put out the same amount of energy as a hundred nuclear warheads? One nuclear warhead? As much energy as the Little Boy? Hell no. Especially when you start accounting for the oxidizer volume. Since getting to the moon takes more energy than falling back, that itself tells us that dropping a space shuttle from the moon to earth will not result in a 100x nuclear explosion.
3. The moon's gravity is 1/6th of Earth's, not say 1/1000th. Anything that you drop on the Earth will need to be lifted from the moon which implies a linear relationship between the amount of energy spent moon-side and the amount of energy released Earth-side (I think...). This point is a bit sketchy because I haven't done the math on this but I'm fairly sure it is correct. Of course the moon's gravity is 1/6th of Earth so there's some benefit but it isn't more than an order of magnitude or two. The real benefit is that the moon rocks apparatus can spend months building up the energy on the moon and it will be released in an instant when the rock hits earth... But you know, that can also be done on Earth (kinetic warheads in LEO for example). All going to the moon gets you is the large but mostly unusable store of potential energy in the moon's sheer mass. The massive logistical issues inherent in such an enterprise are probably not worth it.
I strongly suspect it would be a lot easier for Elon to just buy some third-world country and some PMCs and setup Musk-topia there. Certainly recruitment would be a lot easier when it doesn't involve a literal trip to the moon.
Finally if somebody really wanted to setup an orbital bombardment system I think the place they'd want to look at is the asteroid belt. Each individual asteroid is a lot smaller and already it's own piece so there's no need for expensive mining equipment, just some propellor stages (perhaps the Orion project has contributions to make). The asteroids could be brought into Earth orbit for ostensibly legitimate purposes and then forced into a decaying orbit whenever the controlling entity felt like it. Feels like we should be more worried about the Deep Space Mining company instead.
12:08 PM
Anupam Kapoor said...
heinlien proposed this in 'moon is a harsh mistress' where the protagonist (mike the sentient computer) claims: 'But we can throw rocks at Earth, Man. We will.'
10:11 AM
newt0311 said...
Um... not quite?
So let's see...
We can model this as two objects, the earth and the moon. Let's for the sake of this discussion say that they are stationary and the atmosphere, etc... is not relevant. Our hypothetical weapon starts with a rock on the surface of the moon, gives it just enough energy to get to the gravitational equilibrium point between the earth and moon and then Earth's gravity takes over from there. Let x be the distance from earth's center to the moon's center. So x varies from 0 to ~250k miles (we'll call the latter number d_me).
Then for any given x, the potential energy of the rock is*:
U_r(x) = U_e(x) + U_m(x) = -G m_r (m_e / x + m_m / (d_me - x))
U_r is the potential energy of the rock.
U_e, U_m are the potential energy contributions of the earth and the moon (resp.)
G is the gravitational constant.
m_r, m_e, m_m are the mass of the rock, earth, and moon (resp.)
Now we need to find the equilibrium point x_e. For this, we just need the force from earth's and moon's gravity to be equal:
G m_e m_r / x_e^2 = G m_m m_r / (d_me - x_e)^2
This simplifies to:
x_e = d_me * sqrt(m_e) / (sqrt(m_e) +/- sqrt(m_m))
It is clear that we want the (+) solution because the other one is past both the earth and the moon. Note also that this is the point where U_r is maximized which makes intuitive sense (it takes energy input to get the rock to this point). I get x_e = 3.332e8 meters which corresponds to about 0.9 * d_me.
So at the equilibrium point, all the energy of the rock is the potential energy U_r. Then when this rock actually hits, x = r_e (radius of earth) and U_r is much smaller and the rest is kinetic energy. So E_e, the energy of the explosion is:
E_e = U_r(x_e) - U_r(r_e)
After some math, we get:
E_e = G m_r(m_e / r_e + m_m / (d_me - r_e) - m_e / x_e - m_m / (d_me - x_e)) = m_r * 6.125e7 J.
Note that the implied velocity is ~11 km/s so that part of your post is roughly right.
But recall point #3 I made in my original comment: the weapon still needs to accelerate the rock to get it to the equilibrium point! The energy for that is:
E_m = U_r(x_e) - U_r(d_me - r_m)
By now it should be pretty obvious that all of this is linear in the mass of the rock. If we look at E_e / E_m, we get 23.78 independent of the mass of the rock in question.
So it may be possible to cause a 100x nuclear explosion on earth but it would take 4.2 nukes worth of energy on the moon to do it. Assuming unrealistically ideal conditions.
Maybe asteroid bombardment is still feasible?
Side note: apparently I was wrong about rocket thrusts and whether we can get a space-shuttle sized object to the moon. Ah well...
* This website has a good explanation for gravitational potential energy: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/gpot.html
12:07 PM
Sys-Error said...
Thank you for nerding out for us. Breaking out my slide rule for this one!
1:39 AM
Unknown said...
BRB, making a Minecraft mod
9:37 PM
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Did you know that 30 million adults suffer from thyroid imbalance? Thyroid dysfunction often goes undetected due to a lack of proper testing and symptoms that can be closely related to other health issues. The American Thyroid Association estimates that as many as 60% of people with thyroid disease are not aware that they have an issue with their thyroid function. However, thyroid dysfunctions can progress over time if undetected and can lead to many severe illnesses like hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, and thyroid cancer. Thus, thyroid testing is necessary to weed out any debilitating diseases that could be impacting your health.
What is the Thyroid?
The thyroid is a small butterfly-shaped hormone gland located at the base of your neck that is responsible for the body’s metabolism and other functions by releasing a steady amount of thyroid hormones into the bloodstream.
A wide range of factors such as genetics, hormone imbalances, mineral deficiencies, and environmental pollutants can interfere with thyroid production. The best thing you can do is get your thyroid tested to make sure there are no imbalances in your levels. If imbalances are found, it’s best to treat them before your symptoms and hormone levels worsen.
What Are the Symptoms of Thyroid Imbalances and Disorders?
Statistics show that women are seven times more likely than men to develop thyroid problems, facing a one in five chance of developing a problem particularly during the perimenopausal years when hormones start to fluctuate. However, women and men of all ages can be affected by a thyroid imbalance. The most common illnesses associated with thyroid imbalances are hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. Below are typical symptoms of each to be on the lookout for:
Hypothyroidism
Weight gain or inability to lose weight despite exercise and diet
Feeling cold all the time (when others don’t)
Low energy and stamina, especially in the evening
Memory lapses or slow/fuzzy thinking
Dry, thinning, itchy skin
Dry or brittle hair and nails
Hair loss
Irregular bowel habits
Menstrual irregularities
Hyperthyroidism
Sudden or significant weight loss
Rapid or irregular heartbeat
Sweating
Nervousness or irritability
Hypothyroidism can be caused by a number of factors like radiation therapy, thyroid surgery, an iodine deficiency, and some medications. The most common cause of hypothyroidism is the autoimmune disease, Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. Hashimoto’s occurs when the body develops antibodies that attack the thyroid gland and suppress thyroid functioning. People with hypothyroidism usually need to be on medication for the rest of their lives to treat their symptoms and balance their thyroid levels.
Hyperthyroidism is the opposite of hypothyroidism and occurs when the thyroid is overproducing thyroid hormones, specifically the hormone thyroxine (T4). Causes of hyperthyroidism can range from hyperfunctioning thyroid nodules, thyroiditis, or the autoimmune disease called Graves Disease. The antibodies associated with Graves Disease actually override the normal regulation of the thyroid and cause the gland to produce thyroid hormones excessively. Again, most people with hyperthyroidism will need to treat their symptoms and hormone imbalance with medication.
Getting tested for a thyroid imbalance is extremely important for people of all ages and genders. Pregnant women are most at risk due to the problems thyroid diseases can cause to an unborn fetus – miscarriages, congenital hypothyroidism, and birth defects can occur if the thyroid hormones are not properly balanced.
How Do I Test my Thyroid for an Imbalance?
At Cherokee Customs Rx, we offer a minimally invasive Thyroid Imbalance Test that checks whether or not your thyroid hormone levels are within normal range. All it takes is a finger prick – no blood draw! Below is a list of all the hormones we test and what each hormone indicates:
TSH
Produced by the pituitary gland, TSH acts on the thyroid gland to stimulate production of the thyroid hormone thyroxine (T4).
Free T4 – Thyroxine
The predominant hormone produced by the thyroid gland, T4 is converted to its active form, T3, within cells.
Total T4 – Thyroxine
Total T4 includes both free T4 and protein-bound T4, and is an indicator of the thyroid gland’s ability to synthesize, process and release T4 into the bloodstream.
Free T3 – Triiodothyronine
T3 is the active thyroid hormone that regulates the metabolic activity of cells.
TPOab – Thyroid Peroxidase Antibodies
Thyroid peroxidase is an enzyme involved in thyroid hormone production. The body produces antibodies, including TPOab, that attack the thyroid gland in autoimmune thyroiditis and Hashimoto’s. Testing TPOab levels can diagnose these conditions.
Tgbn – Thyroglobulin
A protein rich in tyrosine, the residues of which when bound to iodine become the building blocks of T3 and T4. If iodine levels are low, thyroglobulin accumulates, thus high levels indicate insufficient iodine for healthy thyroid function.
If you have any of the symptoms listed above, are pregnant, or are planning to become pregnant, we recommend testing your thyroid levels. Reach out to us to find out more about our tests and how we can help keep your health on track at our Health Testing contact page.
January 5, 2021
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Friday, 26 November 2021 00:00 - Sunday, 28 November 2021 00:00
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Her Royal Highness the Grand Duchess of Luxembourg will officially open this year's International Bazaar (Bazar International de Luxembourg) on Saturday 27 November 2021 at LuxExpo The Box in Luxembourg-Kirchberg.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the event did not take place last year. The organisers noted that even this year it has been a challenge; it was not until summer 2021 that they decided it would definitely go ahead, meaning that "what usually takes between six and nine months to create has now been done in less than three".
The International Bazaar is entirely run by volunteers. It takes about 1,500 people to get the event together: to construct and decorate the stands, to search for and buy products to be sold, to prepare food and organise tombolas (raffles), among other things.
The success of the event is ultimately defined by how much money can be donated to the charities that are selected anew, every year.
For the very first time, the International Bazaar is opening its doors the evening before for a "sneak-preview". Those who cannot wait for the doors to officially open on Saturday 27 November at 10:00, can start their weekend on Friday 26 November at 18:00 with after work drinks and early bird shopping. The event will continue on Sunday 28 November.
This year's edition of the International Bazaar is taking place as a CovidCheck event. Entry is only possible after a QR code check (vaccinated, recovered or officially tested negative); a full list of requirements is available online at www.bazar-international.lu. Inside LuxExpo, various hygiene and safety measures are in place.
Entry is free but visitors are required to choose a time slot in advance. The booking system can be found on the websites of LuxExpo The Box: www.thebox.lu and the International Bazaar. Anyone who shows up spontaneously will have to buy a ticket for a fee at the entrance of LuxExpo.


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Team spokesman Mark Choquette explained Stringer was worried about the lack of testing this season compared with last season, the highly contagious nature of the delta variant and her desire not to transmit the disease to her 40-year-old daughter, who has required special care since contracting spinal meningitis at age 2.
Stringer also has not been running practice or offseason workouts. Eatman has.
“I personally don't think there's going to be any difference," forward Osh Brown said. “Her blueprint speaks to every single one of us."
Rutgers has finished third in league play two of the last three years and has won 535 games and made 18 NCAA Tournament appearances in Stringer's 26 seasons.
Eatman served as acting head coach for the final six regular-season games at the end of the 2018-19 season, leading Rutgers to its first Big Ten Tournament championship game and into the NCAA tourney.
“No one can fill her role," guard Lasha Petree said. “But this is definitely the team she trusts with coach Eatman and the other assistants."
BACK HOME AGAIN
Fred Hoiberg has made two trips back to Indianapolis since becoming Nebraska's coach. On Thursday, he returned to the Indiana Pacers' home court — the team he started his NBA career with.
Hoiberg never played in this venue but in March 2020, it was here Hoiberg became visibly ill during a Big Ten Tournament game against the Hoosiers. He went to a nearby hospital and though he didn't have COVID-19, it turned out to be the final game of the tourney because of the pandemic.
Still, an Indy trip always brings back special memories for Hoiberg.
“When I walked in, I saw a picture of Mel Daniels, who is really the guy that drafted me," he said. “To see Reggie Miller’s name up there. Roger Brown, Slick Leonard, to see his picture, such a great person and a guy that I had a lot of wonderful times with. Always have great memories of this place. We loved it here. We loved our time."
CHANGING TIMES
Big Ten Commissioner Kevin Warren wanted to give the women's and men's teams equal time this week so he changed the schedule. The women's coaches spoke first, followed by the men's coach from the same school and during breakout sessions, coaches and players spoke at the same time.
Most welcomed the decision, which Warren said would be replicated at men's and women's events in other sports.
“I definitely think it's about time, the same days as the men," Petree said. “Equality, that's a huge thing."
REPLACING LUKA
Iowa coach Fran McCaffery might have the Big Ten's toughest job — replacing conference player of the year Luka Garza.
It's not just about finding a fill-in for his productivity. McCaffery needs to find someone who can consistently deliver in clutch moments, too.
“He was so gifted at understanding whatever we were doing," McCaffery said. “You take that for granted after a while. When you have him for four years, it makes coaching easier. Who is going to step into that role? We don’t have anyone 6-foot-11 that’s going to average 20 points a game."
OUT OF ACTION
Iowa center Sharon Goodman is expected to miss the entire season after suffering a torn anterior cruciate ligament during the Hawkeyes' first practice, coach Lisa Bluder said Thursday.
Freshman Addison O'Grady is expected to replace the 6-foot-3 sophomore as the primary backup to center Monika Czinano.
“That was a big loss," Bluder said. “Sharon was playing great. Last year she shot 55% from the field, she was a tremendous backup to Monika because she was so strong. She was playing at a better level this year, this summer, than last year. I was really expecting big things from Sharon."
___
More AP college basketball: https://apnews.com/hub/College-basketball and https://twitter.com/AP_Top25


Urge Congress to pass the Paycheck Fairness Act (H.R. 7, S. 205) which would strengthen the 1963 Equal Pay Act and take additional steps to end gender-based wage disparities. Fifty-eight years after enactment of the Equal Pay Act, and over a decade after signing the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act, the promise of equal pay for equal work remains unfulfilled. Furthermore, the wage gap is even larger for women of color. On average, Black women earn just 63 cents, Native American women just 60 cents, and Latinas just 55 cents for every dollar a white man earns.
The COVID-19 pandemic has forced many women to leave the workforce to care for family during stay-at-home orders, or they have been the most at-risk of sickness because of employment as essential workers, often underpaid and undervalued. Women made up one-half of the workforce in 2020, yet 70 percent of America’s poor are women and children.
Equal pay is not simply a woman’s issue, it is a family issue and an anti-poverty issue. Women also have been hit hardest by the COVID-19 pandemic causing many women to lose their jobs or leave the workforce to stay home with children unable to attend in-person school.
As the economy slowly recovers from the pandemic, now is the time to make sure that women can return to the workforce or enter the workforce without discrimination.
The bill bans retaliation against workers who voluntarily discuss or disclose their wages, provides effective remedies for women who are not given equal pay for equal work, and requires employers to prove that pay disparities exist for legitimate, job-related reasons. The bill makes it illegal for an employer to rely on an employee’s wage history in the hiring process, and allows employees to automatically participate in class action lawsuits against systemic pay discrimination, unless they opt-out. The bill also creates a negotiation and skills training program, and improves the Department of Labor and Equal Employment Opportunity Commission’s tools for enforcing the Equal Pay Act.
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Reauthorize the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA)
Time to reauthorize the Violence Against Women Act, devoting comprehensive resources to local communities by enhancing and expanding prevention programs and services to survivors of domestic violence, sexual assault, dating violence, and stalking.
Family Violence Prevention and Services Act Reauthorization
Domestic violence programs nationwide need critical funding and technical support. Hotlines and shelters must be available and properly staffed to meet the needs of families. This is an important time to invest heavily in family violence prevention.
Service Dogs for Veterans
Service dogs trained to support veterans helped significantly reduce PTSD symptoms according to a recent study by the Department of Veterans Affairs. Time to establish a pilot program giving veterans the opportunity to train and adopt service dogs.
Protect Funding for Victims of Crime
Urge Senators to enact H.R. 1652, the Victims of Crime Act (VOCA) bill to increase deposits and restore critical funding to the Crime Victims Fund which provides grants to state and local programs that assist victims of crime.
Fund Global Vaccination Efforts
Urge Congress to fully fund immunization programs in FY 2022. The United States plays a vital role in the lives of children around the world. Support the CDC’s polio and measles programs, and funding for global childhood immunizations.
Increase Funds to Prevent Child Abuse
It is time for Congress to reauthorize the bipartisan Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act programs, and appropriate $750 million funding for Community-Based Child Abuse Prevention grants.
Equal Pay for Equal Work
Full time working women make $.82 compared to every $1.00 a man makes. The wage gap persists in nearly every line of work, regardless of education, experience, occupation, industry, or job title, and is even larger for women of color.
Time for Women to have Equal Rights
It’s time for women to have equal rights under the law! Urge Congress to remove the deadline for ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the U.S. Constitution and reaffirm congressional support for women’s equality.
End Campus Sexual Assault
Victims of sexual assault require specialized medical treatment and counseling services. Campus sexual assault survivors suffer high rates of PTSD, depression, and drug or alcohol abuse which can hamper both the ability to succeed in school and future employment. Educational equity for women and girls requires fair, responsive, fully developed campus sexual assault policies, knowledgeable administrators, and ultimately, an end to sexual violence on college campuses.
Reauthorize the Violence Against Women Act
It’s time to reauthorize the Violence Against Women Act, H.R. 1620, devoting resources to local communities by enhancing and expanding prevention programs and services to survivors of domestic violence, sexual assault, dating violence, and stalking.


From 1963 to 1982, researchers in New York City, New York, carried out a randomized trial of mammography screening. Mammography is the use of X-ray technology to find breast cancer at early stages. The private insurance company Health Insurance Plan of Greater New York, or HIP, collaborated with researchers Sam Shapiro, Philip Strax, and Louis Venet on the trial. The researchers’ goal was to determine whether mammography screening reduced breast cancer mortality in women. The study included sixty thousand women aged forty to sixty-four.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
The Discovery of p53 Protein
The p53 protein acts as a pivotal suppressor of inappropriate cell proliferation. By initiating suppressive effects through induction of apoptosis, cell senescence, or transient cell-cycle arrest, p53 plays an important role in cancer suppression, developmental regulation, and aging. Its discovery in 1979 was a product of research into viral etiology and the immunology of cancer. The p53 protein was first identified in a study of the role of viruses in cancer through its ability to form a complex with viral tumor antigens.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
Thesis: Timeline of Changes in Mammography Guidelines in the United States
Breast cancer affects about 12% of women in the US. Arguably, it is one of the most advertised cancers. Mammography became a popular tool of breast cancer screening in the 1970s, and patient-geared guidelines came from the American Cancer Society (ACS) and the US Preventative Task Force (USPSTF). This research focuses on ACS guidelines, as they were the earliest as well as the most changed guidelines. Mammography guidelines changed over time due to multiple factors. This research has tracked possible causes of those changes.
Format: Essays and Theses
Subject: Technologies, Experiments, Publications
Harald zur Hausen's Experiments on Human Papillomavirus Causing Cervical Cancer (1976–1987)
From 1977 to 1987, Harald zur Hausen led a team of researchers across several institutions in Germany to investigate whether the human papillomavirus (HPV) caused cervical cancer. Zur Hausen's first experiment tested the hypothesis that HPV caused cervical cancer rather than herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), the then accepted cause. His second and third experiments detailed methods to identify two previously unidentified HPV strains, HPV 16 and HPV 18, in cervical cancer tumor samples. The experiments showed that HPV 16 and 18 DNA were present in cervical tumor samples.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
HeLa Cell Line
The HeLa cell line was the first immortal human cell line that George Otto Gey, Margaret Gey, and Mary Kucibek first isolated from Henrietta Lacks and developed at The Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1951. An immortal human cell line is a cluster of cells that continuously multiply on their own outside of the human from which they originated. Scientists use immortal human cell lines in their research to investigate how cells function in humans.
Format: Articles
Subject: Technologies, Experiments, People, Ethics
Shoukhrat Mitalipov and Masahito Tachibana’s Mitochondrial Gene Replacement in Primate Offspring and Embryonic Stem Cells (2009)
Shoukhrat Mitalipov, Masahito Tachibana, and their team of researchers replaced the mitochondrial genes of primate embryonic stem cells via spindle transfer. Spindle replacement, also called spindle transfer, is the process of removing the genetic material found in the nucleus of one egg cell, or oocyte, and placing it in another egg that had its nucleus removed. Mitochondria are organelles found in all cells and contain some of the cell’s genetic material. Mutations in the mitochondrial DNA can lead to neurodegenerative and muscle diseases.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
The British Doctors’ Study (1951–2001)
From 1951 to 2001, researchers at the University of Oxford in Oxford, England, conducted the British Doctors’ Study, a study that examined the smoking habits, disease rates, and mortality rates of physicians in Britain. Two epidemiologists, scientists who study occurrence and distribution of disease, Richard Doll and Austin Bradford Hill, initiated the study, and statistician Richard Peto joined the team in 1971. The objective of the study was to assess the risks associated with tobacco use, and its relationship to lung cancer.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
"Transfer of Fetal Cells with Multilineage Potential to Maternal Tissue" (2004), by Kiarash Khosrotehrani et al.
In 2004, a team of researchers at Tufts-New England
Medical Center in Boston, Massachusetts, investigated the fetal
cells that remained in the maternal blood stream after pregnancy.
The results were published in Transfer of Fetal Cells with
Multilineage Potential to Maternal Tissue. The team working on that
research included Kiarash Khosrotehrani, Kirby L. Johnson, Dong
Hyun Cha, Robert N. Salomon, and Diana W. Bianchi. The researchers
reported that the fetal cells passed to a pregnant woman during
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments, Reproduction
"A Stochastic Model of Stem Cell Proliferation, Based on the Growth of Spleen Colony-Forming Cells” (1964) by James Till, Ernest McCulloch, and Louis Siminovitch
In 1964, authors James Till, Ernest McCulloch, and Louis Siminovitch, published A Stochastic Model of Stem Cell Proliferation, Based on The Growth of Spleen Colony-Forming Cells, which discussed possible mechanisms that control stem cell division. The authors wrote the article following their experiments with spleens of irradiated mice to demonstrate the existence of stem cells, had unknown properties.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
"In vitro Experiments on the Effects of Mouse Sarcomas 180 and 37 on the Spinal and Sympathetic Ganglia of the Chick Embryo" (1954), by Rita Levi-Montalcini, Viktor Hamburger, and Hertha Meyer
"In vitro Experiments on the Effects of Mouse Sarcomas 180 and 37 on the Spinal and Sympathetic Ganglia of the Chick Embryo" were experiments conducted by Rita Levi-Montalcini in conjunction with Viktor Hamburger and Hertha Meyer and published in Cancer Research in 1954. In this series of experiments, conducted at the University of Brazil, Levi-Montalcini demonstrated increased nerve growth by introducing specific tumors (sarcomas) to chick ganglia. Ganglia are clusters of nerve cells, from which nerve fibers emerge.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
Elizabeth Blackburn, Carol Greider and Jack Szostak's Telomere and Telomerase Experiments (1982-1989)
Experiments conducted by Elizabeth Blackburn, Carol Greider, and Jack Szostak from 1982 to 1989 provided theories of how the ends of chromosomes, called telomeres, and the enzyme that repairs telomeres, called telomerase, worked. The experiments took place at the Sidney Farber Cancer Institute and at Harvard Medical School in Boston, Massachusetts, and at the University of California in Berkeley, California. For their research on telomeres and telomerase, Blackburn, Greider, and Szostak received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2009.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
The Meselson-Stahl Experiment (1957–1958), by Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl
In an experiment later named for them, Matthew Stanley Meselson and Franklin William Stahl in the US demonstrated during the 1950s the semi-conservative replication of DNA, such that each daughter DNA molecule contains one new daughter subunit and one subunit conserved from the parental DNA molecule. The researchers conducted the experiment at California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, California, from October 1957 to January 1958.
Format: Articles
Subject: Processes, Experiments
"Transplantation of Living Nuclei from Blastula Cells into Enucleated Frogs' Eggs" (1952), by Robert Briggs and Thomas J. King
In 1952 Robert Briggs and Thomas J. King published their article, "Transplantation of Living Nuclei from Blastula Cells into Enucleated Frogs' Eggs," in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the culmination of a series of experiments conducted at the Institute for Cancer Research and Lankenau Hospital Research Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In this paper Briggs and King examined whether nuclei of embryonic cells are differentiated, and by doing so, were the first to conduct a successful nuclear transplantation with amphibian embryos.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
Serial Cultivation of Human Diploid Cells in the Lab (1958–1961) by Leonard Hayflick and Paul S. Moorhead
From 1958 to 1961, Leonard Hayflick and Paul Moorhead in the US developed a way in the laboratory to cultivate strains of human cells with complete sets of chromosomes. Previously, scientists could not sustain cell cultures with cells that had two complete sets of chromosomes like normal human cells (diploid). As a result, scientists struggled to study human cell biology because there was not a reliable source of cells that represented diploid human cells. In their experiments, Hayflick and Moorhead created lasting strains of human cells that retained both complete sets of chromosomes.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
James Edgar Till (1931– )
James Edgar Till is a biophysicist known for establishing the existence of stem cells along with Ernest McCulloch in 1963. Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can shift, or differentiate, into specialized types of cells and serve as a repair system in the body by dividing indefinitely to replenish other cells. Till’s work with stem cells in bone marrow, which produces the body’s blood cells, helped form the field of modern hematology, a medical discipline that focuses on diseases related to the blood.
Format: Articles
Subject: People, Experiments, Technologies
The China-US Study on the Prevention of Neural Tube Defects using Folic Acid (1999)
From 1993 to 1995 researchers led by Robert J. Berry from the US Centers for Disease Control headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, and Zhu Li from Beijing Medical University in Beijing, China, conducted a collaborative study in China on the prevention of neural tube defects or NTDs using folic acid supplements. NTDs are birth defects in which openings in the spinal cord or the brain that occur during early development remain after birth. Neural-tube formation occurs in early pregnancy, often before a woman knows she is pregnant and therefore before she has begun taking prenatal vitamins.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
"A Diffusible Agent of Mouse Sarcoma, Producing Hyperplasia of Sympathetic Ganglia and Hyperneurotization of Viscera in the Chick Embryo" (1953), by Rita Levi-Montalcini and Viktor Hamburger
"A Diffusible Agent of Mouse Sarcoma, Producing Hyperplasia of Sympathetic Ganglia and Hyperneurotization of Viscera in the Chick Embryo," by Rita Levi-Montalcini and Viktor Hamburger, appeared in 1953 in the Journal of Experimental Zoology. The paper provided the first evidence that nerve growth factor is a diffusible substance. Nerve growth promoting tumors were implanted into developing embryos to determine whether the tumors stimulated growth by direct contact or by a diffusible substance.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
"Selective Growth Stimulating Effects of Mouse Sarcoma on the Sensory and Sympathetic Nervous System of the Chick Embryo" (1951), by Rita Levi-Montalcini and Viktor Hamburger
In "Selective Growth Stimulating Effects of Mouse Sarcoma on the Sensory and Sympathetic Nervous System of the Chick Embryo," Rita Levi-Montalcini and Viktor Hamburger explored the effects of two nerve growth stimulating tumors; mouse sarcomas 180 and 37. This experiment led to the discovery that nerve growth factor was a diffusible chemical and later to discoveries that the compound was a protein. Although this paper was an important step in the discovery of nerve growth factor, the term "nerve growth factor" was not used in this paper.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
Clinical Tests of Estrogen Injections on Women with Abnormal Menstrual Cycles During the Early 1920s by Jean Paul Pratt and Edgar Allen
In the early twentieth century US, Jean Paul Pratt and Edgar Allen conducted clinical experiments on women who had abnormal menstrual cycles. During the clinical tests, researchers injected the hormone estrogen into their patients to alleviate their menstrual ailments, which ranged from irregular cycles to natural menopause. The hormone estrogen plays a prominent role in the menstrual cycle by signaling the tissue lining the uterus (endometrium) to thicken in preparation for possible pregnancy.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
"Embryonic Stem Cell Lines Derived from Human Blastocytes" (1998), by James Thomson
After becoming chief pathologist at the University of Wisconsin-Madison Wisconsin Regional Primate Center in 1995, James A. Thomson began his pioneering work in deriving embryonic stem cells from isolated embryos. That same year, Thomson published his first paper, "Isolation of a Primate Embryonic Stem Cell Line," in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, detailing the first derivation of primate embryonic stem cells. In the following years, Thomson and his team of scientists - Joseph Itskovitz-Eldor, Sander S. Shapiro, Michelle A.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments, Publications
Christopher Polge and Lionel Edward Aston Rowson’s Experiments on the Freezing of Bull Spermatozoa (1950–1952)
In 1952, researchers Christopher Polge and Lionel Edward Aston Rowson, who worked at the Animal Research Center in Cambridge, England, detailed several experiments on protocols for freezing bull semen for use in the artificial insemination of cows. Freezing sperm extends the life of a viable sperm sample and allows it to be used at later times, such as in artificial insemination. The researchers examined the effects of freezing conditions on bull sperm and how well they produce fertilized embryos once thawed.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
"Presence of Fetal DNA in Maternal Plasma and Serum" (1997), by Dennis Lo, et al.
In the late 1990s researchers Yuk Ming Dennis Lo and his colleagues isolated fetal DNA extracted from pregnant woman’s blood. The technique enabled for more efficient and less invasive diagnoses of genetic abnormalities in fetuses, such as having too many copies of chromosomes.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
Action of MER-25 and of Clomiphene on the Human Ovary (1963)
Between 1958 and 1962, physicians Olive W. Smith, George V. Smith, and Robert W. Kistner performed experiments that demonstrated the effects of the drugs MER-25 and clomiphene citrate on the female human body. MER-25 and clomiphene citrate are drugs that affect estrogen production in women. At the time of the experiment, researchers did not know which organ or organs the drugs affected, the ovaries and/or the anterior pituitary gland.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
Frank Rattray Lillie's Study of Freemartins (1914-1920)
Frank Rattray Lillie's research on freemartins from 1914 to 1920 in the US led to the theory that hormones partly caused for sex differentiation in mammals. Although sometimes applied to sheep, goats, and pigs, the term freemartin most often refers to a sterile cow that has external female genitalia and internal male gonads and was born with a normal male twin.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
"Viable Offspring Derived from Fetal and Adult Mammalian Cells" (1997), by Ian Wilmut et al.
In the 1990s, Ian Wilmut, Jim McWhir, and Keith Campbell performed experiments while working at the Roslin Institute in Roslin, Scotland. Wilmut, McWhir, and Campbell collaborated with Angelica Schnieke and Alex J. Kind at PPL Therapeutics in Roslin, a company researching cloning and genetic manipulation for livestock. Their experiments resulted in several sheep being born in July 1996, one of which was a sheep named Dolly born 5 July 1996.
Format: Articles
Subject: Experiments
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Contact Us
© 2021 Arizona Board of Regents
The Embryo Project at Arizona State University, 1711 South Rural Road, Tempe Arizona 85287, United States


On 9 July 1990, in Moore v. Regents of the University of California, the Supreme Court of California ruled in a four-to-three decision that individuals do not have rights to a share in profits earned from research performed on their bodily materials. In its decision, the Supreme Court of California ruled that cancer patient John L. Moore did not have personal property rights to samples or fluids that his physicians took from his body for research purposes.
Format: Articles
Subject: Legal, Ethics
United States v. University Hospital (1984)
The US 2nd Circuit Court of Appeals' 1984 decision United States v. University Hospital, State University Hospital of New York at Stony Brook set a significant precedent for affirming parental privilege to make medical decisions for handicapped newborns, while limiting the ability of the federal government to intervene. The ruling stemmed from the 1983 case involving an infant born with severe physical and mental congenital defects; the infant was only identified as Baby Jane Doe.
Format: Articles
Subject: Legal, Reproduction
Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)
The landmark Supreme Court case, Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), gave women more control over their reproductive rights while also bringing reproductive and birth control issues into the public realm and more importantly, into the courts. Bringing these issues into the public eye allowed additional questions about the reproductive rights of women, such as access to abortion, to be asked. This court case laid the groundwork for later cases such as Eisenstadt v. Baird (1972) and Roe v. Wade (1973).
Format: Articles
Subject: Legal, Reproduction
“Women’s Right to Know” Informed Consent Informational Materials
As of 2021, twenty-eight US states have informed consent laws for abortion, which is a medical procedure to terminate pregnancy, often called Women’s Right to Know laws. Those laws often require the state government to develop informational materials that healthcare providers must give to women before an abortion. Informational materials generally include information about the process of fetal development, accompanied by illustrations or pictures, risks and effects of abortion, and alternatives to abortion.
Format: Articles
Subject: Legal
Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act (1994)
On 26 May 1994, US President Bill Clinton signed the Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act in to law, which federally criminalized acts of obstruction and violence towards reproductive health clinics. The law was a reaction to the increasing violence toward abortion clinics, providers, and patients during the 1990s. That violence included clinic blockades and protests, assaults on physicians and patients, and murders. The Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act established
Format: Articles
Subject: Legal
Webster v. Reproductive Health Services (1989)
In the 1989 case Webster v. Reproductive Health Services, the
US Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of a Missouri law regulating abortion care. The
Missouri law prohibited the use of public facilities, employees, or
funds to provide abortion counseling or services. The law also placed restrictions on physicians who provided
abortions. A group of physicians affected by the law challenged the
constitutionality of certain sections of it. The US federal district
court that first heard the case ruled many of the challenged sections of
Format: Articles
Subject: Legal
United States v. One Package of Japanese Pessaries (1936)
In the 1936 case United States v. One Package of Japanese Pessaries, the US Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in New York City, New York, confirmed that physicians had the right to distribute contraceptives to patients for medical purposes. In January 1933, US Customs confiscated a package of contraceptives imported from Japan by US physician Hannah Stone.
Format: Articles
Subject: Legal
Ferguson v. City of Charleston (2001)
The US Supreme Court case Ferguson v. City of Charleston (2001) established that public hospitals couldn't legally drug test pregnant women without their consent when those women sought prenatal care at those hospitals. The court held that such searches violated the pregnant women's protections under the Fourth Amendment to the US Constitution. The decisions also indicated those circumstances that qualified as special needs exceptions to the Fourth Amendment, and it highlighted the extent to which pregnant women are sovereign individuals in the eyes of the Court. Ferguson v.
Format: Articles
Subject: Legal
Golden Rice
Golden Rice was engineered from normal rice by Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer in the 1990s to help improve human health. Golden Rice has an engineered multi-gene biochemical pathway in its genome. This pathway produces beta-carotene, a molecule that becomes vitamin A when metabolized by humans. Ingo Potrykus worked at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, Switzerland, and Peter Beyer worked at University of Freiburg, in Freiburg, Germany. The US Rockefeller Foundation supported their collaboration.
Format: Articles
Subject: Organisms, Legal
Hwang Woo-suk's Use of Human Eggs for Research 2002-2005
Hwang Woo-suk, a geneticist in South Korea, claimed in Science magazine in 2004 and 2005 that he and a team of researchers had for the first time cloned a human embryo and that they had derived eleven stem cell lines from it. Hwang was a professor at Seoul National University in Seoul, South Korea. In the Science articles, Hwang stated that all of the women who donated eggs to his laboratory were volunteers who donated their eggs (oocytes) without receiving any compensation in return. In 2006, Hwang admitted that many of the results were fabricated.
Format: Articles
Subject: Legal, Ethics, Reproduction
In re Marriage of Witten (2003)
In re Marriage of Witten, decided by the Iowa Supreme Court in 2003, held that neither Tamera nor Arthur (Trip) Witten could use or destroy several cryopreserved preembryos created during their marriage using in vitro fertilization (IVF), unless the former couple could reach a mutual agreement. Tamera and Trip Witten, unable to conceive conventionally during their marriage, had attempted to start a family together using IVF at the University of Nebraska Medical Center (UNMC) in Omaha, Nebraska.
Format: Articles
Subject: Legal
Barry Morris Goldwater (1909–1998)
Barry Morris Goldwater was a Republican Arizona Senator and US presidential candidate in the twentieth-century whose policies supported the women's reproductive rights movement. Goldwater, a businessman and Air Force reservist, transitioned into politics in the 1950s. He helped align popular support for a conservative Republican Party in the 1960s. Throughout his life, he worked to maintain personal liberty and to limit governmental intrusion into citizens' private lives. Goldwater, influenced by his wife Margaret (Peggy) Goldwater, supported women's rights to abortions.
Format: Articles
Subject: People, Reproduction, Legal, Religion
Sindell v. Abbott Laboratories (1980)
Sindell v. Abbott Laboratories was a 1980 California case that established the doctrine of market share liability for personal injury cases. For such liability, when a drug causes personal injury and the manufacturer of the drug cannot be identified, each producer is responsible for paying the settlement in proportion to the percentage of the market they supplied. Judith Sindell and Maureen Rogers brought the case against the producers of diethylstilbestrol (DES), which their mothers had taken during pregnancy to prevent miscarriage and other complications.
Format: Articles
Subject: Legal
Jeter v. Mayo (2005)
In Jeter v. Mayo, the Court of Appeals of Arizona in 2005 held that a cryopreserved, three-day-old pre-embryo is not a person for purposes of Arizona's wrongful death statutes, and that the Arizona Legislature was best suited to decide whether to expand the law to include cryopreserved pre-embryos. The Court of Appeals affirmed a decision by the Maricopa County Superior Court to dismiss a couple's wrongful death claim after the Mayo Clinic (Mayo) allegedly lost or destroyed several of their cryopreserved pre-embryos.
Format: Articles
Subject: Reproduction, Legal
Title X Family Planning Program (1970–1977)
The Family Planning Services and Public Research Act of 1970, often called Title X Family Planning Program, is a US federal law that provides federal funding for family planning services to low income or uninsured families. The US federal government passed the law, Public Law 91-572, in 1970 as an amendment to the Public Health Services Act of 1944. The Act created the Office of Population Affairs (OPA) under the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare (here called the Secretary).
Format: Articles
Subject: Reproduction, Legal
Planned Parenthood Center of Tucson, Inc., v. Marks (1972)
In the 1972 case Planned Parenthood Center of Tucson, Inc., v. Marks, the Arizona Court of Appeals required the Arizona Superior Court to rehear the case Planned Parenthood Association v. Nelson (1971) and issue a decision on the constitutionality of Arizona's abortion laws. In 1971, the Planned Parenthood Center of Tucson filed the case Planned Parenthood Association v. Nelson asking for the US District Court to rule on the constitutionality of the Arizona Revised Statutes 13-211, 13-212, and 13-213, which made it illegal for anyone to advertise, provide, or receive an abortion.
Format: Articles
Subject: Legal
Skinner v. Oklahoma (1942)
In 1942, the United States Supreme Court Case of Skinner v. Oklahoma ruled that states could not legally sterilize those inmates of prisons deemed habitual criminals. Skinner v. Oklahoma was about the case of Jack Skinner, an inmate of the Oklahoma State Penitentiary in McAlester, Oklahoma, who was subject to sterilization under the Oklahoma Habitual Criminal Sterilization Act of 1935. The case, decided on 1 June 1942, determined that state laws were unconstitutional if those laws enabled states to forcibly sterilize inmates deemed to be habitual criminals.
Format: Articles
Subject: Ethics, Legal
Tucson Woman's Clinic v. Eden (2004)
The case Tucson Woman's Clinic v. Eden (2004) established that some of Arizona's abortion clinic laws violated physicians' and patients' rights to privacy, and it required those laws to be rewritten. The laws required most abortion providers to be licensed with the Arizona Department of Health Services and to submit to all the regulations the Department established for abortion clinics. The regulations allowed the state to search abortion clinics without warrants and to access patient records and ultrasound prints, among other provisions.
Format: Articles
Subject: Legal
Isaacson v. Horne (2013)
In the 2013 case Isaacson v. Horne, the US Court of Appeals in the Ninth Circuit ruled that Arizona House Bill (HB) 2036, which prohibited abortions after twenty weeks of gestation, was unconstitutional. The Arizona State Legislature passed the law in 2012, which was then challenged by three physicians who filed a lawsuit against the state, arguing that the law violated women's constitutionally protected rights to abortions, rights that may only be infringed once fetuses are viable outside of the womb.
Format: Articles
Subject: Legal
Simat Corp v. Arizona Health Care Cost Containment System (2002)
In the 2002 case Simat Corp v. Arizona Health Care Containment System, the Arizona Supreme Court ruled that the Arizona Health Care Containment System must pay for abortions when they are necessary to preserve the health of pregnant women in the system. In the case, the Court ruled that the Arizona Revised Statutes 35-196.02 and the Arizona Health Care Containment System (AHCCCS) policies, which banned public funds from being used for abortions, were unconstitutional. AHCCCS is Arizona's Medicaid insurance system, which enables low-income residents to receive medical care.
Format: Articles
Subject: Legal
Nelson v. Planned Parenthood Center of Tucson (1973)
The 1973 case Nelson v. Planned Parenthood Center of Tucson established the legality of abortion in Arizona. The Arizona Court of Appeals ruled that the Arizona Revised Statutes 13-211, 13-212, and 13-213, collectively called the Arizona abortion statutes, were unconstitutional. The statutes had made illegal receiving, providing, or advertising abortions. After the Arizona Appeals Court heard the case, it decided that the Arizona abortion statutes were constitutional. However, two weeks later the US Supreme Court decided in Roe v.
Format: Articles
Subject: Legal
US Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program
In 1996, the US Congress mandated that the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) create and regulate the Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program. The program tests industrial and agricultural chemicals for hormonal impacts in humans and in wildlife that may disrupt organisms' endocrine systems. The endocrine system regulates the release of small amounts of chemical substances called hormones to keep the body functioning normally.
Format: Articles
Subject: Disorders, Legal, Ethics
Forbes v. Napolitano (2000)
Forbes v. Napolitano (2000) was a US court case that established that Arizona researchers could use fetal tissues from induced abortions for basic scientific research, for instance, as a source of stem cells. The case challenged the constitutionality of the Arizona Revised Statute (ARS) 36-2303 in the Ninth Circuit US Court of Appeals, a law that banned researchers from using fetal tissues from abortions for any type of medical experimentation or investigation. The Ninth Circuit US Court of Appeals decision in Forbes v.
Format: Articles
Subject: Legal
Thesis: Dismantling Legal Constraints to Contraception in the 1900s
In the late nineteenth century, the Comstock Act of 1873 made the distribution of contraception illegal and classified contraception as an obscenity. Reflecting the predominant attitude towards contraception at the time, the Comstock Act was the first federal anti-obscenity law that targeted contraception. However, social acceptance of birth control changed at the turn of the twentieth century. In this thesis, I analyzed legislation, advocates, and literature pertinent to that social change to report on the events leading up to the decriminalization of contraception.
Format: Essays and Theses
Subject: People, Legal, Reproduction
Weber v. Stony Brook Hospital (1983)
The New York Court of Appeals' 1983 case Weber v. Stony Brook set an important precedent upholding the right of parents to make medical decisions for newborns born with severe congenital defects. A pro-life New York attorney, Lawrence Washburn, attempted to legally intervene in the case of Baby Jane Doe, an infant born with disorders. When the infant's parents chose palliative care over intensive corrective surgery, Washburn made repeated attempts to have the New York courts force through the surgery.
Format: Articles
Subject: Legal, Reproduction
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James Patrick Anderton CNZM (born Byrne; 21 January 1938 – 7 January 2018) was a New Zealand politician who led a succession of left-wing parties after leaving the Labour Party in 1989.
The Honourable
Jim Anderton
CNZM
Anderton in 2010
15th Deputy Prime Minister of New Zealand
In office
10 December 1999 – 15 August 2002
Prime Minister
Helen Clark
Preceded by
Wyatt Creech
Succeeded by
Michael Cullen
Leader of Progressive Party
In office
27 July 2002 – 15 March 2012
Deputy
Matt Robson
Preceded by
Position established
Succeeded by
Position abolished
25th President of the Labour Party
In office
15 May 1979 – 8 September 1984
Preceded by
Arthur Faulkner
Succeeded by
Margaret Wilson
Member of the New Zealand Parliament
for Wigram
Sydenham (1984–1993)
In office
14 July 1984 – 26 November 2011
Preceded by
John Kirk
Succeeded by
Megan Woods
Majority
8,548[1]
Personal details
Born
James Patrick Byrne
(1938-01-21)21 January 1938
Auckland, New Zealand
Died
7 January 2018(2018-01-07) (aged 79)
Christchurch, New Zealand
Political party
Labour (1963–1989, 2011–2018)
NewLabour (1989–1991)
Alliance (1991–2002)
Progressive (2002–2011)
Spouse(s)
Carole Anderton
Profession
Businessman, politician
Signature
Anderton's political career began when he was elected to the Manukau City Council in 1965. After serving for five years as Labour Party president, Anderton successfully stood as the Labour candidate for Sydenham in Christchurch in 1984. However, he soon came into conflict with the party's leadership, and became an outspoken critic of the Fourth Labour Government's free-market reforms, called Rogernomics. In April 1989, believing that Labour was beyond change, Anderton resigned from the party.
As Leader of the Alliance and later the Progressive Party, he served as the 15th deputy prime minister of New Zealand in the Fifth Labour Government from 1999 to 2002 and as a senior minister in that government from 2002 to 2008. In 2010, he ran unsuccessfully for the mayoralty of Christchurch. Anderton retired from Parliament at the 2011 election. After his retirement, he and former MP Philip Burdon were the two prominent campaigners for the restoration of ChristChurch Cathedral.
Contents
1 Early life
2 Entering politics
3 Member of Parliament
4 1989 split from Labour
5 Alliance
6 Fifth Labour Government
7 Christchurch mayoral candidacy
8 Retirement
9 Death
10 Notes
11 References
12 External links
Early lifeEdit
Jim Anderton was born on 21 January 1938[2] in Auckland to Matthew Byrne and Joyce Savage. His father left the family and his mother married Victor Anderton. Matthew Byrne died in a train accident in the 1940s and Victor Anderton adopted Jim in 1951.[3] Jim undertook all his education in Auckland, attending Seddon Memorial Technical College and the Auckland Teachers' Training College. He graduated as a qualified teacher, but spent only two years in a teaching role (at St Peter's College, Auckland) before moving on to work as a child welfare officer in Wanganui.[4]
In 1960, he married Joan Caulfield and they had five children, two girls and three boys.[4] The same year he became the paid organiser for the Catholic Youth Movement in the Catholic Diocese of Auckland, and later worked as the secretary for the Catholic diocese in Auckland.[5] Cardinal Reginald Delargey said that there were difficulties with Jim Anderton with his employment ending "when he put us in a position where we had to make a choice between him or the Pope".[6]
Anderton later moved into business, working as an export manager for a textiles company before establishing a manufacturing company, Anderton Holdings, with his brother Brian in 1971 and also bought a superette in Parnell.[4]
Entering politicsEdit
Anderton in 1965
Anderton joined the Labour Party in 1963 and first attended a Labour party branch meeting in Mangere in 1964.[4] His political career began in 1965 when he was elected to the Manukau City Council on a Labour ticket. In 1971, he stood for the Auckland City Council as a Labour candidate unsuccessfully and was the highest polling un-elected Labour candidate.[7] Three years later he challenged Dove-Myer Robinson, the incumbent Mayor of Auckland City, for the mayoralty, but was beaten by 7,000 votes. In the same local election, he also stood for the Auckland City Council and was successful.[8][9][10] Anderton had another tilt at the Auckland City mayoralty in 1977, but was again beaten by the incumbent.[8][11][12] Earlier in 1977 he was elected to the Auckland Regional Authority via a by-election and was confirmed a member at the 1977 local elections later that year despite again losing the mayoralty.[13][8] At the same time, he worked his way up the internal hierarchy of the Labour Party. He became the party's president in 1979, a year before his term with the Auckland Regional Authority ended. He was also a long-standing member of the party's policy council.
Following the sudden death of Frank Rogers in 1980 there was intense press speculation that Anderton (who was the proprietor of a business situated in the electorate) would stand to replace him in the Onehunga by-election.[14] Despite briefly considering standing, he eventually declined nomination, refusing to renege on the promise he made to members at the 1979 party conference that he would not stand for a parliamentary seat at, or before, the 1981 election.[15] Soon afterwards Anderton was also rumoured to be contemplating replacing the retiring Arthur Faulkner in the Roskill electorate, but after a hostile reaction to the notion in caucus Anderton was dissuaded from seeking the Roskill nomination.[16]
Member of ParliamentEdit
New Zealand Parliament
Years Term Electorate List Party
1984–1987 41st Sydenham Labour
1987–1989 42nd Sydenham Labour
1989–1990 Changed allegiance to: NewLabour
1990–1991 43rd Sydenham NewLabour
1991–1993 Changed allegiance to: Alliance
1993–1996 44th Sydenham Alliance
1996–1999 45th Wigram 1 Alliance
1999–2002 46th Wigram 1 Alliance
2002–2005 47th Wigram 1 Progressive
2005–2008 48th Wigram 1 Progressive
2008–2011 49th Wigram 1 Progressive
In the 1984 general election, Anderton stood successfully as the Labour candidate for Sydenham in Christchurch. This election resulted in the formation of the Fourth Labour Government.[17] Anderton soon came into conflict with the party's leadership, and became one of the most outspoken critics of Minister of Finance Roger Douglas. Douglas and his allies, Richard Prebble and David Caygill, were determined to implement radical reforms of the country's economic system, known unofficially as "Rogernomics". This involved a monetarist approach to controlling inflation, the removal of tariffs and subsidies, and the privatisation of state assets, all of which were regarded by Anderton as a betrayal of the party's left-wing roots, and an abandonment of the party's election platform.
Anderton's severe criticism of Douglas and his reforms earned him the enmity of many within the party, including some of those who otherwise shared Anderton's frustration; his public comments were seen as damaging the party's public image. His stance of vocally and publicly opposing Labour's neoliberal direction led him to eschew the prospect of becoming a cabinet minister in the Lange ministry.[4]
1989 split from LabourEdit
Logo of the NewLabour Party
Although many ordinary members of the Labour Party (who were unhappy at the way the party's parliamentary wing was behaving) backed Anderton, he became increasingly isolated in parliament. When Anderton disobeyed party instructions to vote in favour of selling the Bank of New Zealand (which Labour had explicitly promised not to do), he was suspended from caucus. In April 1989, believing that Labour was beyond change, Anderton resigned from the party. He later said, "I did not leave the Labour Party; the Labour Party left me."[18] All but one of Anderton's electorate staff in Sydenham left with him.[4] Michael Bassett commented "while Anderton liked to portray his differences as ideological, we knew from past experience that his real problem was that he wasn't the one in control of the government, and he could see no way of seizing power".[19]
On 1 May, Anderton announced the creation of the NewLabour Party, intended to represent the real spirit of the original Labour Party. Its primary goals were state intervention in the economy, retention of public assets, and full employment. In the 1990 general election Anderton retained his Sydenham seat, ensuring that NewLabour (and Anderton's criticism) would not fade away. A long serving office manager and campaign director, Jeanette Lawrence, said Anderton retaining his seat at the 1990 general election was the "happiest she ever saw him".[4] He was the first MP in New Zealand political history to leave an established party, found another and be re-elected to Parliament representing that new party. In parliament, Anderton attacked the policies of the new National Party government, particularly Ruth Richardson's continuation of Rogernomics.
In regard to leaving Labour in 1989, he later recalled: "I have no regrets about any of that. Under the same circumstances I would do exactly the same again."[18] Anderton was awarded the New Zealand 1990 Commemoration Medal.[20]
AllianceEdit
Anderton and NewLabour were at the centre of the Alliance Party established in 1991. He became leader of the new party and in the 1993 election, was joined in parliament by Alliance colleague Sandra Lee. He briefly stepped down as leader of the Alliance in November 1994 following the suicide of his daughter the year before,[21] but returned in May 1995.[4][22]
In the 1996 election, the first to be held under the mixed-member proportional (MMP) system, the Alliance won 13 seats in Parliament. Anderton retained his constituency seat, now renamed Wigram, and he was joined in Parliament by 12 list MPs.
Anderton was the most prominent critic of the rash of party-switching (sometimes called "waka jumping" in New Zealand) that characterised the 45th Parliament, although remained silent about his own past party-switching.[23] When Alliance list MP Alamein Kopu declared herself an independent and supported the National-led coalition, Anderton blasted her, saying her behaviour "breached every standard of ethics that are known." He later started a "Go Now" petition calling on Kopu and every other party-switching MP to resign; like Anderton himself in 1989 they chose not to resign.[citation needed]
Fifth Labour GovernmentEdit
Creating Kiwibank has been cited as Anderton's greatest legacy
By the late 1990s, Labour under Helen Clark had largely purged itself of the influence of Roger Douglas. Realising that the cost of a split in the left-wing vote would be a continuance of the National government, Labour and the Alliance agreed to form a coalition for the 1999 election. National lost the election and Anderton became Deputy Prime Minister. He was also given the newly created post of Minister of Economic Development, which had an emphasis on job creation and regional development initiatives. Anderton also co-authored the New Zealand Superannuation Fund, a sovereign wealth fund to partially pre-fund the future cost of universal superannuation, with Finance Minister Michael Cullen[18] and promoted the first waka-jumping legislation—the Electoral Integrity Act 2001. Anderton, along with fellow Alliance MP Laila Harré, was also an invaluable advocate in the creation and implementation for 12 weeks' paid parental leave.[18]
The successful establishment of Kiwibank, a state-owned bank, is often cited as Anderton's greatest achievement.[18] It was initially opposed by both Clark and Cullen but Anderton eventually wore the Labour Cabinet down following several months of debate culminating with Annette King telling Cullen, "For God's sake, give him the bloody bank".[24]
Towards the end of Alliance's first term in Government, Anderton came into conflict with the Alliance's administrative wing. Party president Matt McCarten and his allies claimed that the Alliance had become too close to Labour, and that it should take a less moderate path; Anderton replied that some moderation was required for the Alliance to accomplish any of its goals. There were complaints that Anderton was too dominant in the party's decision-making and over the fact that he supported the government's stance on the bombing of Afghanistan, while the executive and wider membership opposed it. Eventually, Anderton and three other MPs left the Alliance, establishing the Progressive Coalition, later renamed the Progressive Party. In order to get around the waka-jumping legislation which Anderton had supported, he technically remained the Alliance's parliamentary leader until the writ was dropped for the 2002 election.
In the election, Anderton was returned to Parliament, and the Progressives took the Alliance's place as Labour's coalition partner. Although Anderton won his electorate, the small amount of support the Progressives received (1.4% of the party vote) was enough for only one other Progressive (deputy leader Matt Robson) to enter Parliament. Anderton gave up the deputy prime minister's post to Minister of Finance and Labour deputy leader Michael Cullen. He remained Minister of Economic Development, and also held other ministerial portfolios. He ranked third in Cabinet, behind Clark and Cullen.
In the runup to the 2005 election Anderton renamed his party "Jim Anderton's Progressive Party". However, he was the only Progressive returned to Parliament by a narrow margin after many left-wing voters voted for Labour to prevent a National government from being elected due to a split on the left. He became Minister of Agriculture, Minister for Biosecurity, Minister of Fisheries, Minister of Forestry, Minister Responsible for the Public Trust, Associate Minister of Health, and Associate Minister for Tertiary Education.
The 2008 election saw a swing to the right, with National winning approximately 45% of the party vote to Labour's 34%. Anderton retained his seat but the Progressives' share of the party vote remained low, at less than one percent.[25] In a move described as "unorthodox" by the New Zealand Herald, Anderton announced that he would remain in coalition with Labour in opposition. He said that a priority for the Progressives would be to support better access to dental care.[26]
Christchurch mayoral candidacyEdit
Anderton with Megan Woods (left), November 2010
Anderton announced in May 2010 that he would contest the Christchurch mayoralty that October.[27] He initially said that if elected to the mayoralty he would not give up his seat in Parliament because he didn't want to cause an expensive by-election.[28] However, following the 2010 Canterbury earthquake Anderton announced he would stand down as MP for Wigram if elected mayor so he could fully focus on rebuilding the city.[29] Anderton was leading the polls until the earthquake hit.[30][31] He lost the election, taking 40.6% of the vote to incumbent mayor Bob Parker's 53.7% of the vote, with the rest of the vote split amongst numerous minor candidates.
RetirementEdit
Anderton's CNZM Investiture in 2017
Anderton retired from Parliament at the 2011 election. The Progressive Party did not run candidates in that election. At the time, he held the unofficial title of Father of the House as the longest continuously serving MP. During the election campaign, Anderton endorsed Labour candidate and previously unsuccessful mayoral candidate Megan Woods to succeed him in his electorate.[32] Woods was elected.[33] After his retirement, he put his energy into a campaign to have ChristChurch Cathedral restored after it had been severely damaged in the February and June 2011 Christchurch earthquakes; he worked on this campaign with former National MP Philip Burdon. They were ultimately successful in September 2017 when the Anglican synod made a binding decision to restore the church.[34]
He was appointed a Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit in the 2017 Queen's Birthday Honours, for services as a Member of Parliament.[35] On 3 September 2017, he had a special investiture ceremony at Nazareth House attended by the Governor-General (Dame Patsy Reddy), the Mayor of Christchurch (Lianne Dalziel), and former Prime Minister Helen Clark.[34]
DeathEdit
Anderton died in Christchurch on 7 January 2018, two weeks before his 80th birthday.[36][37][38] His funeral at Sacred Heart Catholic Church in Christchurch was attended by hundreds, including the Prime Minister.[39] Anderton was buried at Onetangi Cemetery on Waiheke Island.[40]
Figures from across the political spectrum praised Anderton following his death, and the leaders of New Zealand's parliamentary parties paid tributes.[4][41]
NotesEdit
^ "2005 election results – Official Count Results – Wigram". Electoral Commission. Retrieved 9 February 2007.
^ Who's Who in Asian and Australasian Politics. 11 September 2008. ISBN 9780862915933. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
^ Stewart, Gary (5 November 2010). "The secret life of Matthew Byrne". Liverpool Echo. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
^ a b c d e f g h i Wright, Michael (7 January 2018). "The legacy of Jim Anderton: Former Deputy Prime Minister hailed 'one of the most highly-principled and idealistic' politicians". Stuff.co.nz. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
^ "Anderton, Jim - New Zealand Parliament". www.parliament.nz. Retrieved 1 November 2021.
^ Bassett 2008, p. 94.
^ "Declaration of Result of Election". The New Zealand Herald. 22 October 1971. p. 11.
^ a b c van Beynen, Martin (23 July 2010). "The final push". The Press. Retrieved 19 September 2017.
^ "Declaration of Result of Election". The New Zealand Herald. 22 October 1974. p. 19.
^ "Declaration of Result of Election". The New Zealand Herald. 23 October 1974. p. 16.
^ "Mayor back by 5633". The New Zealand Herald. 24 October 1977. p. 2.
^ "Declaration of Result of Election". The New Zealand Herald. 24 October 1977. p. 11.
^ "Anderton has easy win in ARA poll". Auckland Star. 7 February 1977. p. 5.
^ "Onehunga Asks: Which Way Will Mr Anderton Jump?". The New Zealand Herald. 30 April 1980. p. 1.
^ "Anderton says 'no bid' on Onehunga". Auckland Star. 2 May 1980. p. 3.
^ Bassett 2008, p. 60.
^ Wilson, James Oakley (1985) [First ed. published 1913]. New Zealand Parliamentary Record, 1840–1984 (4th ed.). Wellington: V.R. Ward, Govt. Printer. p. 180. OCLC 154283103.
^ a b c d e "Jim Anderton remembered as champion of MMP, Kiwibank, paid parental leave". The New Zealand Herald. 8 January 2018. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
^ Bassett 2008, p. 475.
^ Taylor, Alister; Coddington, Deborah (1994). Honoured by the Queen – New Zealand. Auckland: New Zealand Who's Who Aotearoa. p. 47. ISBN 0-908578-34-2.
^ "26 years on, our star Jim is shining". NZ Herald. 25 August 2000. ISSN 1170-0777. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
^ "Anderton, Jim – New Zealand Parliament". www.parliament.nz. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
^ "Electoral (Integrity) Amendment Bill — Second Reading - New Zealand Parliament". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard).
^ Watkins, Tracy (5 October 2011). "Anderton's persistence led to Kiwibank". Stuff.co.nz. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
^ "Election results 2008".
^ "Anderton to stay with Labour, even in opposition". The New Zealand Herald. 19 November 2008. Retrieved 6 October 2011.
^ "Anderton to run for mayor". Christchurch: The Press. 6 May 2010. Retrieved 6 May 2010.
^ "Jim Anderton won't give up seat if elected mayor". NZPA. 10 May 2010. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
^ Booker, Jarrod (12 September 2010). "Anderton presses on with mayoral bid". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
^ "Anderton leads Christchurch mayoral poll". Stuff. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 November 2020.
^ "Post-quake Christchurch poll shock". Stuff. 29 September 2010. Retrieved 4 November 2020.
^ "Dr Megan Woods".
^ Commission, New Zealand Electoral. "Official Count Results – Wigram". archive.electionresults.govt.nz. Retrieved 19 September 2017.
^ a b Rutherford, Bridget (7 September 2017). "Ailing Jim Anderton recognised at special investiture ceremony". The Star. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
^ "Queen's Birthday honours list 2017". Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. 5 June 2017. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
^ "Honourable James Anderton death notice". The Dominion Post. 8 January 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
^ "Former deputy PM Jim Anderton dies". The New Zealand Herald. 7 January 2018. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
^ "Former Deputy Prime Minister Jim Anderton has died". radionz.co.nz. RNZ. 7 January 2018. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
^ Gates, Charlie (11 January 2018). "New Zealand statesman Jim Anderton farewelled by family and friends". The Press – via Stuff.co.uk.
^ "Family say final goodbyes to Jim Anderton at Waiheke burial". New Zealand Herald. 13 January 2018. Retrieved 13 January 2018.
^ "Tributes for Jim Anderton: 'A man of integrity'". RNZ. 7 January 2018. Retrieved 10 June 2021.
ReferencesEdit
Bassett, Michael (2008). Working with David: Inside the Lange Cabinet. Auckland: Hodder Moa. ISBN 978-1-86971-094-1.